OLD ENGLISH PERIOD

 

OLD ENGLISH PERIOD

1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Little is known of the history of the old English period and indeed very little is extant literature of the time. The earliest inhabitants of the island presently known as England are supposed to be Celts whose one of tribes was called as Brythons or Brytons. They were pagan that is nature worshipers and secular. Though the old English period comprises of the time between the fifth century and the Norman conquest, it is necessary to have look at the earlier time for the sake of the former influences on English literature and English language.

Old English Period is enormous with respect to its time span but in miniscule with regard to the output of literature. When the Celtic people had established their deep roots in Britain, continuous invasions of Rome started to shook their deep-rooted existence. Julius Caesar began invading Britain in 55 B.C. and occupation of Britain was completely accomplished by Claudius in 1st cent. A.D. Romans had to withdraw their power from the country in 410 A.D. due to the attacks on their home country. During their nearly five hundred years’ rule, Britain enjoyed more peace than ever before. The Romans pushed Celts into Wales and Ireland and prevented Vikings from invading for several hundred years. C. Warren Hollister writes that Rome’s greatest gift to Britain had been peace. They developed infrastructures like walls, villas, public baths, etc. Latin became the official language of Britain.

Another crucial influence in the history of Britain was the introduction of Christianity in 597 A.D. by St. Augustine. By the time, Angles, Saxons and Jutes had already started settling in Britain. They were the Germanic tribes who came from Baltic shores of Germany and the Jutland peninsula in Denmark. The native Britons had to withdraw from England to Wales. The name ‘England’ derives from the Angles and the language they spoke came to be known as ‘English’. During the 8th through 11th centuries, there were continuous attacks by Vikings. They were violent sea-faring Scandinavians. Due to the Viking invasions, England was continually under political instability and tribal wars.

Eventually England became divided into seven kingdoms known as the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy. They were Kent, Essex (East Saxon), Sussex (South Saxon), East Anglia, Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex (West Saxon). King Alfred of West Saxon came to political supremacy and the dialect of West Saxon became a ‘standard’ language in which all the extant texts are preserved.

2. LITERARY FEATURES

      The old English literature before the introduction of Christianity was pagan or secular in nature. The poems of the period had features of the pagan past. However, Christian elements entered in the poems like Widsith and Beowulf after 597 as the manuscripts were written in the monasteries. Most of the extant literature is anonymous. We know of Caedmon and Cynewulf belonging to the period who signed their poems. Prose came much later and was written for specific purposes so the authorship of the prose writing is established. Many of the works ascribed to the period were mere adaptions or translations from the earlier known sources. The old English literature extant now was preserved in the four manuscripts 1. Beowulf MS, having Beowulf and Judith, 2. The Junius MS, containing poems of Caedmon, 3. The Exter Book and 4 the Vercelli Book. The latter two contained four signed poems of Cynewulf.

3. AUTHORS

3.1 King Alfred: He is regarded as the ‘father of English prose’. He translated some popular books into West Saxon dialect. The five important translations are the Pastoral Care of Pope Gregory, the History of the World of Orosius, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy, and the Soliloquies of St Augustine.

3.2 Aelfric: Known for his Grammar, he was a churchman who became abbot of Eynsham in 1005. Other extant works by him include: the Catholic Homilies, the Lives of the Saints and translations from the Scriptures.

3.3 Wulfstan: He was Bishop of Worcester and Archbishop of York. His well-known piece is the Sermo Lupi ad Anglos.

4. MAJOR WORKS

4.1 Beowulf

Though the theme of the poem is pagan, the extant version was clearly written by a Christian as it contains Christian elements. The poem is likely to have been revised many times. Beowulf is king of the 'Geatas.' Beowulf is the son of Ecgtheow. He sails to Denmark with a band of warriors and rids the Danish King Hrothgar of a terrible monster called Grendel. The mother of Grendel comes after seeking vengeance for the death of her son. She too meets the same fate and Beowulf returns to his native land. He becomes king of the Geatas and after a prosperous reign of some forty years slays a dragon which had ravaged his land but in the fight he himself receives a fatal wound. The poem ends with the funeral rites in honour of the dead hero.

4.2 Other Poems

Widsith which means 'the far traveller', consists of nearly 150 lines of verse. In the poem, an imaginary traveller recounts the places and illustrious people he has visited. Waldere has two fragments, some sixty-three lines in all, telling of some of the exploits of Walter of Aquitaine. The Fight at Finnsburh, The Battle of Brunanburh and The Battle of Maldon belong to this age. The Wanderer, The Seafarer, Wife's Lament and Husband's Message, are among the important elegies which appear in the Exeter Book.

5. LANGUAGE

Due to the constant attacks, England experience political, social and cultural instability except during Roman occupation. As a result, England could not devise any standard language. It was through the endeavours of King Alfred that West Saxon dialect achieved the status of being standard language. Latin language had already exercised its deep influence during Roman occupation. After the introduction of Christianity, Latin became the language of religion. King Alfred himself got converted to Christianity and he translated Latin works in his own tongue. This also made Latin vocabulary enter English language.

 

 

    

                                                        Book Review

        Saraswatichandra

                                A Classic Novel by Govardhanram Tripathi

                                       Name of Book: Saraswatichandra

    Author: Govardhanram Tripathi

    Genre: Novel, Romance

    Pages: 1184 pages

    First Published: 1887 to 1901

    Language: Gujarati

    ISBN: 9351221776

    Publisher: R. R. Sheth & Co. Pvt. Ltd. 

 

Saraswatichandra is the outstandingly classic novel written in Gujarati by Govardhanram Madhavaram Tripathi. It is set in 19^th century Bombay and surrounding areas which were erstwhile parts of Gujarat. Widely celebrated as one of the greatest masterpieces not only of Gujarati literature but also of world literature, the book is divided into four parts, though each of them dealing with different theme, the novel maintains a strong uniformity with respect to its central theme - an educated man called Saraswatichandra’s journey to spiritual enlightenment.

Saraswatichandra has such a captivating story that keeps one charged and curious throughout the bulky book. It is fashioned in the mode of picaresque novel though not fulfilling all the criteria. We have a host of characters like Saraswatichandra, Kumud, Lakshminandan, Buddhidhan, Vidyachatur, Gunasundari, Chandrakant, Maanchatur, Kusum, Vishnudas, Manoharpuri and many more. Each of them is representing qualities of their name. Saraswatichandra, the central figure, is a barrister by qualification. He is refined, well-educated and a brilliant scholar in literature, philosophy and languages, who is still in search for meaning in life. Finding ample occasion, he abandons his home in Mumbai permanently forsaking his father, step mother, friends and renouncing the worldly comforts and riches of his father’s business. He assumes a new   name   of Navinchandra so that no one can recognize him and reaches to Buddhidhan to whose son his love, Kumud was married. Overwhelmed by Navinchandra’s worldly   wisdom, Buddhidhan allows him to live in his house. The reader gets chance to enter into the world of Buddhidhan. After staying with Buddhidhan’s family, he leaves for Vidhyachatur. Whereby on the way, he is robbed. Everyone assumes him dead in the incident. He, in the meantime, has been saved by a group of sadhus and taken to their ashram on the adjoining Sundargiri hills. Here also, Saraswatichandra overwhelms the main sadhu, Vishnudas, by expressing his knowledge and eventually names him as the inheritor to his sadhu position. Kumud has, on the other hand, also survived in the other incident. She was similarly caught by Lady Ascetic Chandravali. The group takes Kumud to Vishnudas's ashram and she and Saraswatichandra find out about each other's presence there. The story grows more and more captivating as it leads to its end where everything is settled with Saraswatichandra marrying Kusum and the possibility of meeting the two pure love also comes to the end which is rather tragic from the perspective of the genuine love between Saraswatichandra and Kumud.

Incredible Govardhanram Madhavaram Tripathi! Even more incredible is his novel, Saraswatichandra. Hats off to Tripathi’s art fully at work in his grand epic novel. What wonders me since long time why Govardhanram Madhavaram Tripathi preferred Gujarati language for expressing his self even though he was a scholar of many languages. Perhaps it was his respect for Gujarati language and he wanted to create something grand in Gujarati which had been in his mind since long. He wanted to heighten the language. The book is the milestone or even the magnum opus in Gujarati literature. It was adapted into several plays, radio plays, films and TV series. The presentation of Govardhanram Tripathi is so vivid that the reader assumes himself to be a close friend of Navinchandra involved in actions with the hero himself. The reader becomes witness to the intense love of Navinchandra for Kumad and vice versa.

I had been infatuated with novel since long when one of my teachers recommended it to me. I was then introduced it as a romantic novel delineating love of Saraswatichandra and Kumud. The thought of reading the novel resided deep in a corner of my mind and the feeling of the nature of love Saraswatichandra had, was in my heart. The residual dream became reality after a great length of time. When I started to read the novel, I found it much more what had thought of. I can with conviction recognize every character of the novel in the present time. The novel is the type as well as the most individual. And every one would find it interesting to read the novel because he/she would find a match for himself/herself in the novel. The book is ‘Everyone’ for everyone. What impressed me about the book is its universality. Whether you are a literature lover, fond of philosophy, history, psychology, religion, spirituality, etc., the present book is surely for you. Go for it and you will have great time, perhaps it would be the greatest book ever read by you.